Introduction
After World War II, with the founding of the Council of Europe and the institutions that would later become the European Union, Europe embarked on an uncertain path toward what some intended to be a form of pan-European cooperation in economic and human rights matters and what others desired to be the first step toward a "United States of Europe." The result has been a sweeping transfer of power from national capitols to EU institutions and significant EU regulatory and legal oversight on issues once clearly a matter of exclusive national concern. Along the way, treaty amendments and the decisions of the Court of Justice of the European Union and European Court of Human Rights have given rise to robust objections from "euro-skeptics," who are insisting that their national governments should "claw back" powers from the entire range of European institutions. This section examines recent developments in this debate, particularly on the subjects of human rights, law and justice, finance and trade, and the democratic impacts of the expanding authority of the European institutions.
Human Rights
Since the end of World War II, with the creation of the European Union and the Council of Europe, there has been an increased focus on the promotion and protection of human rights within Europe. For instance, the Strasbourg, France-based European Court of Human Rights decides cases under the European Convention on Human Rights that profoundly influence national domestic policies. Meanwhile, under the Lisbon Treaty, the Court of Justice of the European Union has increased its review of the performance of national governments under the EU Fundamental Charter of Human Rights. The European Commission and Council of Europe regularly engage on human rights issues, as does the EU Agency for Fundamental Rights. This focus area monitors develops in the ever-expanding pan-European governance of human rights issues and the threat it poses to national sovereignty.
